Assamese Literature

Assamese Literature:                 

                   Assamese literature is the entire corpus of poetry, novels, short stories, documents and other writings in the Assamese language. It also includes popular ballads in the older forms of the language during its evolution to the contemporary form. The literary heritage of the Assamese language can be traced back to the 6th century in the Charyapada, where the earliest elements of the language can be discerned.

History:
The history of the Assamese literature may be broadly divided into three periods:

1. Early Assamese (6th to 15th century AD)

                     The Charyapadas are often cited as the earliest example of Assamese literature. The Charyapadas are Buddhist songs composed in 8th-12th century. These writings bear similarities to Oriya and Bengali languages as well. The phonological and morphological traits of these songs bear very strong resemblance to Assamese some of which are extant.

                     After the Charyapadas, the period may again be split into (a) Pre-Vaishnavite and (b) Vaishnative sub-periods. The earliest known Assamese writer is Hema Saraswati, who wrote a small poem "Prahrada Charita". In the time of the King Indranarayana (1350-1365) of Kamatapur the two poets Harihara Vipra and Kaviratna Saraswati composed Asvamedha Parva and Jayadratha Vadha respectively. Assam is known as the state of Ekasarana Dharma. Because two great apostles, Srimanta Shankardeva and Madhabdev had undertaken pivital roles in Assamese literature. The Kirtan Ghosa, Dasham, Ankia Nat, Gunamala, Namghosa are the most popular and widely held books in Assam. Srimanta Sankardeva And Madhabdev has changed the literature of Assam by writing these books. The Borgeet written by both Sankardev And Madhabdev is known as the soul song of Assam. The Ankia Nat and Jumura are the first Indian cultural drama and these are acts that came before Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. Another poet named Rudra Kandali translated Drona Parva into Assamese. But the most well-known poet of the Pre-Vaishnavite sub period is Madhav Kandali, who rendered Valmiki's Ramayana into Assamese verse (Kotha Ramayana, 14th century) under the patronage of Mahamanikya, a Kachari king of Jayantapura.

2. Middle Assamese (17th to 19th Century AD)

                   

                    This is a period of the prose chronicles (Buranji) of the Ahom court. The Ahoms had brought with them an instinct for historical writings. In the Ahom court, historical chronicles were at first composed in their original Tibetan-Chinese language, but when the Ahom rulers adopted Assamese as the court language, historical chronicles began to be written in Assamese. From the beginning of the seventeenth century onwards, court chronicles were written in large numbers. These chronicles or buranjis, as they were called by the Ahoms, broke away from the style of the religious writers. The language is essentially modern except for slight alterations in grammar and spelling.

3. Modern Assamese

Effect of British rule

The British imposed Bengali in 1836 in Assam after the state was occupied in 1826. Due to a sustained campaign, Assamese was reinstated in 1873 as the state language. Since the initial printing and literary activity occurred in eastern Assam, the Eastern dialect was introduced in schools, courts and offices and soon came to be formally recognized as the Standard Assamese. In recent times, with the growth of Guwahati as the political and commercial center of Assam, the Standard Assamese has moved away from its roots in the Eastern dialect.

Influence of Missionaries

The modern Assamese period began with the publication of the Bible in Assamese prose by the American Baptist missionaries in 1819. The currently prevalent standard Asamiya has its roots in the Sibsagar dialect of Eastern Assam. As mentioned in Bani Kanta Kakati's "Assamese, its Formation and Development" (1941, Published by Sree Khagendra Narayan Dutta Baruah, LBS Publications, G.N. Bordoloi Road, Gauhati-1, Assam, India) – " The Missionaries made Sibsagar in Eastern Assam the centre of their activities and used the dialect of Sibsagar for their literary purposes". The American Baptist Missionaries were the first to use this dialect in translating the Bible in 1813.

The Missionaries established the first printing press in Sibsagar in 1836 and started using the local Asamiya dialect for writing purposes. In 1846 they started a monthly periodical called Arunodoi, and in 1848, Nathan Brown published the first book on Assamese grammar. The Missionaries published the first Assamese-English Dictionary compiled by M. Bronson in 1867. One of the major contributions of the American Baptist missionaries to the Assamese language is the reintroduction of Assamese as the official language in Assam. In 1848 missionary Nathan Brown published a treatise on the Assamese language^[1]. This treatise gave a strong impetus towards reintroducing Assamese the official language in Assam. In his 1853 official report on the province of Assam, British official Moffat Mills wrote:

“

...the people complain, and in my opinion with much reason, of the substitution of Bengalee for the Vernacular Assamese. Bengalee is the language of the court, not of their popular books and shashtras, and there is a strong prejudice to its general use. …Assamese is described by Mr. Brown, the best scholar in the province, as a beautiful, simple language, differing in more respects from, than agreeing with, Bengalee, and I think we made a great mistake in directing that all business should be transacted in Bengalee, and that the Assamese must acquire it. It is too late now to retrace our steps, but I would strongly recommend Anandaram Phukan’s proposition to the favourable consideration of the Council of Education, viz., the substitution of the vernacular language in lieu of Bengalee, and completion of the course of the Vernacular education in Bengalee. I feel persuaded that a youth will, under this system of tuition, learn more in two than he now acquires in four years. An English youth is not taught in Latin until he is well grounded in English, and in the same manner, an Assamese should not be taught in a foreign language until he knows his own...." Beginning of Modern Literature:                  The period of modern literature began with the publication the Assamese journal Jonaki (1889), which introduced the short story form first by Laxminath Bezbarua. Thus began the Jonaki period of Assamese literature. In 1894 Rajanikanta Bordoloi published the first Assamese novel Mirijiyori.                 The modern Assamese literature has been enriched by the works of Jyoti Prasad Agarwalla, Hem Barua, Atul Chandra Hazarika, Nalini Bala Devi, Navakanta Barua, and others.                  In 1917 the Oxom Xahityo Xobha was formed as a guardian of the Assamese society and the forum for the development of Assamese language and literature. Padmanath Gohain Baruah was the first president of the society.

Assamese language:

                 Assamese is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language. It is used mainly in the state of Assam in North-East India. It is also the official language of Assam. It is also spoken in parts of Arunachal Pradesh and other northeast Indian states. Nagamese, an Assamese-based creole is widely used in Nagaland and parts of Assam. Small pockets of Assamese speakers can be found in Bhutan. The easternmost of Indo-European languages, it is spoken by over 13 million people.

                  Assamese has derived its phonetic character set and its behaviour from Sanskrit. It is written using the Assamese script. Assamese is written from left to right and top to bottom, in the same manner as English. A large number of ligatures are possible since potentially all the consonants can combine with one another. Vowels can either be independent or dependent upon a consonant or a consonant cluster.

                  The English word "Assamese" is built on the same principle as "Japanese", "Taiwanese", etc. It is based on the name "Assam" by which the tract consisting of the Brahmaputra valley was known. The people call their state Ôxôm and their language Ôxômiya.

Formation of Assamese:

                     Assamese and the cognate languages, Maithili, Bengali and Oriya, developed from Magadhi Prakrit According to linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji, the Magadhi Prakrit in the east gave rise to four Apabhramsa dialects: Radha, Vanga, Varendra and Kamarupa; and the Kamarupa Apabhramsa, keeping to the north of the Ganges, gave rise to the North Bengal dialects in West Bengal and Assamese in the Brahmaputra valley. Though early compositions in Assamese exist from the 13th century, the earliest relics of the language can be found in paleographic records of the Kamarupa Kingdom from the 5th century to the 12th century. Assamese language features have been discovered in the 9th century Charyapada, which are Buddhist verses discovered in 1907 in Nepal, and which came from the end of the Apabhramsa period. Early compositions matured in the 14th century, during the reign of the Kamata king Durlabhnarayana of the Khen dynasty, when Madhav Kandali composed the Kotha Ramayana. Since the time of the Charyapada, Assamese has been influenced by the languages belonging to the Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic families. Assamese became the court language in the Ahom kingdom by the 17th century.

Writing system:

                   Assamese uses the Assamese script, a variant of the Eastern Nagari script, which traces its descent from the Gupta script. There is a strong tradition of writing from early times. Examples can be seen in edicts, land grants and copper plates of medieval kings. Assam had its own system of writing on the bark of the saanchi tree in which religious texts and chronicles were written. The present-day spellings in Assamese are not necessarily phonetic. Hemkosh, the second Assamese dictionary, introduced spellings based on Sanskrit which are now the standard.

Kirtan Ghoxa:

                

                  The Kirtan Ghoxa (Assamese:) is collection of poetical works primarily of Srimanta Sankardeva meant for community singing in the Ekasarana religion. Its importance in the religion is second only to the primary text, the Bhagavat of Sankardeva.

                 The text of the kirtan ghoxa consists of twenty six sections and thirty one kirtans (or narratives of Krishna) (Barman 1999:118-119). The kirtans were originally compiled into a single text by Ramcaran Thakur, the nephew of Madhabdev. All the kirtans were composed by Srimanta Sankardeva, except for one by Ratnakar Kandali and another by Madhabdeva. Two of Sankardeva's kirtans were later additions to Ramcaran Thakur's compilation. In some versions, there is an additional kirtan composed by Sridhar Kandali.

                Each kirtan consists of a ghoxa or refrain followed by a number of verses written in different meters.

The Kirtans:

1. Caturvimsati avatara varnana
2. Pasanda mardana
3. Namaparadha
4. Dhyana Varnana
5. Ajamilopakhyana
6. Prahrada carita
7. Haramohana
8. Balichalana
9. Gajendropakhyana
10. Sisulila
11. Rasa krida
12. Kamsa vadha
13. Gopi udhava samvada
14. Kujir vancha purana
15. Akrurar vancha purana
16. Jarasandhar yuddha
17. Kalyavana vadha
18. Mucukunda stuti
19. Syamanta harana
20. Naradar krishna darsana
21. Vipra putra anayana
22. Damodara upakhyana
23. Daivakir putra anayana
24. Veda stuti
25. Krishna lilamala
26. Srikrishnar vaikuntha prayana
27. Bhagavatar tatparya
28. Uresa varnana

Nam Ghosa:

                   Naam Ghosa is a poem in praise of Lord Krishna and of Vaishnavism or the bhakti cult. Written is Assamese in the sixteenth century by Shree Shree Madhabdev, it extols the practice of devotion to the deity and chanting hymns in praise of the Lord as the only way to attain moksha or salvation.

Asam Sahitya Sabha:

                   The Asam Sahitya Sabha (Assamese: Ôxôm Xahityô Xôbha or "Assam Literary Society") was founded in 1917 in Assam, India to promote the culture of Assam and Assamese literature. Presently it has about one thousand branches all over Assam and also outside the state. The central office is at Jorhat a city of historical importance. The branches and the district units also have their offices in their respective places.

 

               Till 1826 A.D. Assam was ruled mainly by Ahom and Koch dynasties. In 1826, Assam came under the rule of the British, and in the process it had become a part of the political map of India. Of course Assam was always an integral part of the cultural map of India.
However , the history of modern Assam, modern Assamese language and literature and culture found their starting points in the early part of the 19th century. Since 1872 some efforts were made to build up some organisations to work for the development of Assamese language, literature and culture of the modern period.

                   Ôxôm Xahityô Xôbha was the final results of all those efforts. In 1917 it came into being. The first conference was held in the month of December 1917 under the presidentship of Padmanath Gohain Baruah, a big name in the history of modern Assamese literature. Since then the annual conference, nowadays biennial, is held with great pomp and grandeur, and a writer of high reputation is elected to the presidency of the Society.

                   The conference of the Society become a big literary festival, unique in its character, which is attended by thousands of people. The writers of the state assemble, exchange their views and address the people. Currently, the 69th convention is being held at Chapar.

List of presidents:

Year	Name	Venue
1917	Padmanath Gohain Baruah	Sibsagar
1918	Chandradhar Barua	Goalpara
1919	Kaliram Medhi	Barpeta
1920	Hemchandra Goswami	Tezpur
1923	Amrit Bhushan Dev Adhikari	Jorhat
1924	Kanaklal Barua	Dibrugarh
1924	Lakshminath Bezbaruah	Guwahati
1925	Rajanikanta Bordoloi	Nagaon
1926	Benudhar Rajkhowa	Dhuburi
1927	Tarunram Phukan	Goalpara
1929	Kamalakanta Bhattacharya	Jorhat
1930	Mufizuddin Ahmed Hazarika	Golaghat
1931	Nagendra Narayan Choudhury	Sibsagar
1933	Jnanadabhiram Barua	North Lakhimpur
1934	Ananda Chadra Agarwala	Mangaldoi
1936	Raghunath Choudhari	Tezpur
1937	Krishna Kanta Handique	Guwahati
1940	Moidul Islam Bora	Jorhat
1944	Nilamani Phukan	Sibsagar
1947	Nilamani Phukan	Dibrugarh
1950	Ambikagiri Roychudhury	Margherita
1953	Surya Kumar Bhuyan	Shillong
1955	Nalini Bala Devi	Jorhat
1955	Jatindra Nath Duorah	Guwahati
1956	Benudhar Sarma	Dhuburi
1958	Padmadhar Chaliha	Tinisukia
1959	Atul Chandra Hazarika	Nagaon
1960	Trailokya nath Goswami	Palashbari
1961	Trailokya Nath Goswami	Goalpara
1963	Ratnakanta Borkakati	Nazira
1964	Mitradev Mahanta	Digboi
1965	Dimbeshwar Neog	Nalbari
1966	Binanda Chandra Barua	North Lakhimpur
1967	Nakul Chandra Bhuyan	Dibrugarh
1968	Jnanath Bora	Tezpur
1969	Ananda Chandra Barua	Barpeta
1970	Upendra Chandra Lekharu	Dhing
1971	Tirtha Nath Sarma	Makum
1972	Hem Barua	Dhuburi
1973	Giridhar Sarma	Rangia
1974	Maheshwar Neog	Mangaldoi
1975	Satyendra Nath Sarma	Titabor
1976	Jagheshwar Sarma	Tihu
1977	Syed Abdul Malik	Abhayapuri
1978	Prasannalal Choudhury	Golaghat
1979	Atul Chandra Barua	Sualkuchi
1980	Jatindra Nath Goswami	Roha
1981	Sitanath brahmachoudhury	Tinisukia
1982	Sitanath Brahmachoudhury	Diphu
1983	Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya	Bongaigaon
1985	Jogesh Das	Bihpuria
1986	Biren Borkotoki	Kampur
1987	Mahendra Bora	Pathsala
1988	Kirthi Nath Hazarika	Hailakandi
1989	Mahim Bora	Doomdooma
1990	Nabakanta Barua	Biswanath Chariali
1991	Nirmal Prabha Bordoloi	Dhudhnoi
1992	Lakshyadhar Choudhury	Goreshwar
1993	Dr Bhupen Hazarika	Sibsagar
1994	Lila Gogoi	Morigaon
1995	Hitesh Deka	Sarthebari
1996	Laksminandan Bora	Bokakhat
1997	Nagen Saikia	Bilasipara
1998	Nagen Saikia	Howraghat
1999	Chandra Prasad Saikia	Hajo
2000	Chandra Prasad Saikia	Jorhat
2001	Homen Borgohain	Dibrugarh
2002	Homen Borgohain	Kalgachia
2003	Birendra Nath Dutta	North Lakhimpur
2004	Birendra Nath Dutta	Hojai
2005	Kanak Sen Deka	Siphajhar
2006	Kanak Sen Deka	Belsar
2007	Kanak Sen Deka	Chapar
2009	Rongbong Terang	Dhemaji

Economy of Assam (Assam Tea)

Macro-economic trend:

                  Economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty. Growth rate of Assam’s income has not kept pace with that of India’s during the Post-British Era; differences increased rapidly since 1970s. While the Indian economy grew at 6 percent per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000, the same of Assam’s grew only by 3.3 percent. In the Sixth Plan period Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78 percent against a growth rate of 6 percent of India’s. In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the gaps between growth rates of Assam’s and India’s economy widened further.

                  In the current decade, according to recent analysis, Assam’s economy is showing signs of improvement. In the year 2001-2002, the economy grew in 1993-94 constant prices at 4.5 percent, falling to 3.4 percent in the next financial year. During 2003-2004 and 2004-2005, in the same constant prices, the economy grew more satisfactorily at 5.5 and 5.3 percent respectively. The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for the year 2005-2006 at above 6 percent.

                  In the 1950s, soon after the independence, per capita income in Assam was little higher than that in India; it is much lower today. In the year 2000-2001, per capita income in Assam was INR 6,157 at constant prices (1993-94) and INR 10,198 at current prices, which is almost 40 percent lower than that in India. According to the recent estimates, per capita income in Assam at 1993-94 constant prices has reached INR 6520 in 2003-2004 and INR 6756 in 2004-2005, which is still much lower than the same of India.

Agriculture:

                   Agriculture accounts for more than a third of Assam’s income and employs 69 percent of total workforce. Assam's biggest contribution to the world is its tea. Assam produces some of the finest and most expensive teas in the world. Other than the Chinese tea variety Camellia sinensis, Assam is the only region in the world that has its own variety of tea, called Camellia assamica. Assam tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g. Darjeeling, Taiwanese) teas. Assam also accounts for fair share of India’s production of rice, rapeseed, mustard, jute, potato, sweet potato, banana, papaya, areca nut and turmeric. Assam is also a home of large varieties of citrus fruits, leaf vegetables, vegetables, useful grasses, herbs, spices, etc, which are mostly subsistence crops.

                   Assam’s agriculture has yet to experience modernisation in a real sense and is lagging behind. With implications to food security, per capita food grain production has declined in past five decades. On the other hand, although productivity of crops increased marginally, still these are much lower in comparison to highly productive regions. For instance, yield of rice, which is staple food of Assam, was just 1531 kg per hectare against India’s 1927 kg per hectare in 2000-200 (which itself is much lower than Egypt’s 9283, USA’s 7279, South Korea’s 6838, Japan’s 6635 and China’s 6131 kg per hectare in 2001). On the other hand, although having a strong domestic demand, 1.5 million hectares of inland water bodies and numerous rivers and streams and 165 varieties of fishes, fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.

Industry:
                   Apart from tea and petroleum refineries, Assam has few industries of significance. Industrial development is inhibited by its physical and political isolation from neighbouring countries such as Myanmar, China and Bangladesh and from the other growing South East Asian economies. The region is landlocked and situated in the eastern most periphery of India and is linked to the mainland of India by a flood and cyclone prone narrow corridor with weak transportation infrastructure. The international airport in Guwahati is yet to find airlines providing better direct international flights. The Brahmaputra suitable for navigation does not have sufficient infrastructure for international trade and success of such a navigable trade route will be dependent on proper channel maintenance, and diplomatic and trade relationships with Bangladesh.
Assam is a major producer of crude oil and natural gas in India. Assam is the second place in the world (after Titusville in the United States) where petroleum was discovered. Asia’s first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum (Assam) way back in 1867. The second oldest oil well in the world still produces crude oil. Most of the oilfields of Assam are located in the Upper Assam region of the Brahmaputra Valley. Assam has four oil refineries located at Guwahati, Digboi, Numaligarh and Bongaigaon with a total capacity of 7 MMTPA (Million Metric Tonnes per annum). Bongaigaon Refinery and Petrochemicals is the only S&P CNX 500 conglomerate with corporate office in Assam.
                  Although having a poor overall industrial performance, several other industries have nevertheless been started, including a chemical fertiliser plan at Namrup, petrochemical industries at Namrup and Bongaigaon, paper mills at Jagiroad, Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plant at Bokajan, cosmetics plant (HLL) at Doom Dooma, etc. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, silk mill, etc. Unfortunately many of these industries are facing loss and closer due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.

Assam Tea:
                Assam (Assamese: অসম, Hindi: आसाम, and also Hindi: असम) is a black tea named after the region of its production, Assam, in India. Assam tea (Assamese: অসমীয়া চাহ, Hindi: असमिया चाय or Hindi: आसामी चाय or Hindi: असमी चाय) is manufactured specifically from the plant Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Masters). This tea, most of which is grown at or near sea level, is known for its body, briskness, malty flavor, and strong, bright color. Assam teas, or blends containing Assam, are often sold as "breakfast" teas. English Breakfast tea, Irish Breakfast tea, and Scottish Breakfast Tea are common generic names.
                    The state of Assam is the world's largest tea-growing region, lying on either side of the Brahmaputra River, and bordering Bangladesh and Burma (Myanmar). This part of India experiences high precipitation; during the monsoon period as much as 10 to 12 inches (250-300 mm) of rain per day. The daytime temperature rises to about 103F (40 °C), creating greenhouse-like conditions of extreme humidity and heat. This tropical climate contributes to Assam's unique malty taste, a feature for which this tea is well known.
                  Though "Assam" generally denotes the distinctive black teas from Assam, the region produces smaller quantities of green and white teas as well with their own distinctive characteristics.
Historically, Assam is the second commercial tea production region after southern China. Southern China and Assam are the only two regions in the world with native tea plants. Assam tea revolutionized tea drinking habits in the 19th century since the tea, produced from a different variety of the tea plant, yielded a different kind of tea.

 The Myth of Discovery:

                 The recurring colonial myth of "discovery" informs the history of the Assam tea bush and is attributed to one Robert Bruce, a Scottish adventurer, who apparently encountered it in the year 1823. Bruce reportedly found the plant growing "wild" in Assam while trading in the region. He noticed local tribesmen (the Singhpos) brewing tea from the leaves of the bush and arranged with the tribal chiefs to provide him with samples of the leaves and seeds, which he planned to have scientifically examined. Robert Bruce died shortly thereafter, without having seen the plant properly classified. It was not until the early 1830s that Robert’s brother, Charles, arranged for a few leaves from the Assam tea bush to be sent to the botanical gardens in Calcutta for proper examination. There, the plant was finally identified as a variety of tea, or Camellia sinensis

Production:

                  The cultivation and production of Assam tea in the first two decades (1840-1860) was monopolised by the Assam Company which operated in districts of Upper Assam and through the labour of the local Kachari labour. The success of the company and the changes in colonial policy of offering land to the tea planters (Fee simple rules) led to period of boom and expansion in the Assam tea industry in the early 1860s but it could not necessarily be translated into a dramatic shift in production (from China to Assam) due to the "makeshift" nature of plantations, poor conditions of life on plantation (huge rates of mortality and desertion) and also at times the presence of pure speculative capital with no interest in tea production.

 Geography:

 The tea plant (Camellia sinensis var. assamica) is grown in the lowlands of Assam, unlike Darjeelings and Nilgiris which are grown in the highlands.The Assam tea bush grows in a lowland region, in the valley of the Brahmaputra River, an area of clay soil rich with the nutrients of the floodplain. The climate varies between a cool, arid winter and a hot, humid rainy season—conditions ideal for it. Because of its lengthy growing season and generous rainfall, Assam is one of the most prolific tea-producing regions in the world. Each year, the tea estates of Assam collectively yield approximately 1.5 million pounds (680,400 kg) of tea.

               Assam tea is generally harvested twice, in a “first flush” and a “second flush.” The first flush is picked during late March. The second flush, harvested later, is the more prized “tippy tea,” named thus for the gold tips that appear on the leaves. This second flush, tippy tea, is sweeter and more full-bodied and is generally considered superior to the first flush tea. The leaves of the Assam tea bush are dark green and glossy and fairly wide compared to those of the Chinese tea plant. The bush produces delicate white blossoms.

Culture of Assam - Traditional Crafts

List of Assamese Traditional Crafts:

                    Assam has maintained a rich tradition of various traditional crafts for more than two thousand years. Presently, Cane and bamboo craft, bell metal and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making, pottery and terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, musical instruments making, etc are remained as major traditions. Historically, Assam also excelled in making boats, traditional guns and gunpowder, colours and paints, articles of lac, traditional building materials, utilities from iron, etc.

                    Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments to building construction materials. Traditional utilities and symbolic articles made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household. The Xorai and bota have been in use for centuries to offer gifts to respected persons and are two prominent symbolic elements. Hajo and Sarthebari / Xorthebaary are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prominent and prestigious being Muga, the natural golden silk is exclusive only to Assam. Apart from Muga, there are other two varieties called Pat, a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri, a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from Sualkuchi / Xualkuchi, the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations. Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and terracotta work in lower Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc in many places across the region.

Assam silk:

                  Assam silk denotes the three major types of indigenous wild silks produced in Assam—golden Muga, white Pat and warm Eri silk. The Assam silk industry, now centered in Sualkuchi, is a labor intensive industry.

Muga silk

                  Muga silk is the product of the silkworm Antheraea assamensis endemic to Assam. The pupa of these silkworms feed on som (Machilus bombycina) and sualu (Litsaea polyantha) leaves. The silk produced is known for its glossy fine texture and durability. Due to its low porosity the Muga yarn cannot be bleached or dyed and its natural golden color is retained. This silk can be hand-washed with its lustre increasing after every wash. Very often the silk outlives its owner. Assam has received a geographical indication for the production of Muga.

Pat silk:

                    Pat silk is produced by silkworms which feed on mulberry (Morus spp.) leaves. It is usually brilliant white or off-white in colour. Its cloth can dry in shadow.

Eri silk:

                    Eri silk is made by Samia cynthia ricini which feed on leaves of Castor oil plant (Ricinus communis). It is also known as Endi or Errandi silk. Due to the fact that manufacturing process of Eri allows the pupae to develop into adults and only the open ended cocoons are used for turning into silk , it is also popularly known as non-violent silk. This silk is soft and warm and is popular as shawls and quilts.

Gamosa:

                   The Gamosa is an article of great significance for the people of Assam. It is generally a white rectangular piece of cloth with primarily a red border on three sides and red woven motifs on the fourth (in addition to red, other colors are also used). Although cotton yarn is the most common material for making/weaving gamosas, there are special occiasion ones made from Pat silk. Literally translated, it means 'something to wipe the body with' (Ga=body, mosa=to wipe) however, interpreting the word gamosa as the body-wiping towel is misleading. The word gamosa is derived from the Kamrupi word gaamasa (gaama+chadar), the cloth used to cover the Bhagavad Purana at the altar.

Usage of Gamosa:

                    Though it may be used daily to wipe the body after a bath (an act of purification), the use is not restricted to this.

• It is used to cover the altar at the prayer hall or cover the scriptures. An object of reverence is never placed on the bare ground, but always on a gamosa.
• It is used by the farmer as a waistcloth (tongali) or a loincloth (suriya); a Bihu dancer wraps it around the head with a fluffy knot (see picture).
• It is hung around the neck at the prayer hall (naamghar) and was thrown over the shoulder in the past to signify social status.
• Guests are welcomed with the offering of a gamosa and tamul (betel nut) and elders are offered gamosas (referred to as bihuwaan in this case) during Bihu.

                   One can therefore, very well say, that the gamosa symbolizes the life and culture of Assam.

Cultural significance of Gamosa:

                   Significantly the gamosa is used equally by all irrespective of religious and ethnic backgrounds.

At par with gamosa, there are beautifully woven symbolic clothes with attractive graphic designs being used by different cultural sub-systems and ethno-cultural groups as well.

Xorai:

                 The Xorai is a traditional symbol of Assam. In simplistic terms it is an offering tray with a stand at the bottom. There are Xorais with or without a cover on the top.

Materials:

                 Traditional xorais are made of bell metal although nowadays they can also be made from brass and/or silver. Hajo and Sarthebari (Xorthebaary) are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts including xorais.

Usage:

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  As an offering tray for tamul-pan (betel nuts and betel leaves) to guests as a sign of welcome and thanks.
• 
  
  As an offering tray for food and other items placed in front of the altar (naamghar) for blessing by the Lord.
• 
  
  As a decorative symbol in traditional functions such as during Bihu dances (modern usage)
• 
  
  As a gift to a person of honour during felicitations (modern usage).

Jaapi:

                 A Jaapi is a traditional Assamese hat.

Typical regular use Jaapi is made out of tightly woven bamboo and/or cane. Decorative jaapis were worn by people of high station in the past. Today decorative jaapis are made with intricate designs made out of cloth (primarily red, white, green, blue and black) that is integrated with the weaving of the jaapi. There is also a typical red border around the edges.

Usage of Jaapi:

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  Worn over the head as a protection against the elements (sun and rain)
• 
  
  Offered as a sign of respect in felicitation ceremonies
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  Placed as decorative items in and around the house (especially near the front door as a welcome sign)
• 
  
  A symbol representing Assam

 Mekhela chador:

                     Mekhela chador is the traditional Assamese dress worn by women. There are two main pieces of cloth that are draped around the body. The bottom portion, draped from the waist downwards is called the mekhela. It is in the form of a very wide cylinder that is folded into pleats to fit around the waist and tucked in. The top portion of a long length of cloth that has one end tucked into the upper portion of the Mekhela and the rest draped over and around the rest of the body. Invariably there is a blouse that is worn underneath the top half of the body.

                   Traditional Mekhela Chadors are made from the following materials:

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  Cotton
• 
  
  Muga
• 
  
  Pat

                   Some modern low-budget sets are also made with varying blends of cotton and Muga or Pat silk with synthetic materials.

Betel nut:
                     The Areca nut is the seed of the Areca palm (Areca catechu), which grows in much of the tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts of east Africa. It is commonly referred to as "betel nut" as it is often chewed wrapped in betel leaves.

                   Usually for chewing, a few slices of the nut are wrapped in a Betel leaf along with lime and may include clove, cardamom, catechu (kattha), etc. for extra flavouring. Betel leaf has a fresh, peppery taste, but it can be bitter depending on the variety, and this is called "Thamboolam" in Sanskrit, "Tamul" in Assamese, "Paan (पान)" in Bengali and Hindi, Marathi. or 'murukkan' in kerala. Areca nuts are chewed with betel leaf for their effects as a mild stimulant, causing a mild hot sensation in the body and slightly heightened alertness, although the effects vary from person to person. The effect of chewing betel and the nut is relatively mild and could be compared to drinking a cup of coffee.

                 

                  In Assam it is a tradition to offer Pan-tamul (Betel leaves and raw areca nut) to guests after tea or meals in a brass plate with stands called a Bota. Among the Assamese the areca nut also has a variety of uses during religious and marriage ceremonies, where it has the role of a fertility symbol. A tradition from Upper Assam is to invite guests to wedding receptions by offering a few areca nuts with betel leaves. During Bihu, the husori players are offered areca nuts and betel leaves by each household while their blessings are solicited.